By Gabriele Bammer
How can researchers interested in tackling complex societal and environmental problems easily find and draw on what they need from inter- and transdisciplinary approaches, systems thinking, action research, post-normal science and a range of other ways of combining disciplinary and stakeholder perspectives in order to bring about improvements? How can the necessary expertise be fostered and supported in a systematic way?
These are the questions that I have been addressing for more than 20 years in considering whether a new discipline – Integration and Implementation Sciences or i2S – could provide a way forward. i2S 3.0 is the third conceptualization of this discipline and the current version is summarised in the figure below.
At this stage in its development, i2S is focused on providing a framework and conduit for sharing concepts, methods, processes and other tools that are currently fragmented across inter- and transdisciplinarity, systems thinking, action research, post-normal science and other approaches. To do this, i2S is building a curated repository, which, over time, aims to provide the basis for a full discipline.
Building the repository is mainly achieved through the Integration and Implementation Insights (i2Insights) blog.
The framework that underpins the repository and the discipline aims to foster expertise in three domains:
- developing a more comprehensive understanding of the complex problem and the situation in which it is embedded in order to generate fresh insights and ideas for action;
- supporting improved policy and practice responses to the problem by government, business and civil society;
- enabling effective interactions, specifically teamwork and stakeholder engagement, along with effective communication across all aspects of the research.
An additional component of this expertise is dealing effectively with imperfection. The very nature of complex problems means that the understanding achieved, the support provided and the interactions undertaken will all be imperfect. The aim then is to strive for best possible outcomes.
The framework presents eleven areas of specific expertise required by researchers dealing with complex problems, divided among the three domains and organised in a sequence that may provide a useful systematic approach.
In developing a more comprehensive understanding of any complex problem, researchers need proficiency in dealing with:
- systems
- context
- unknowns
- diversity, and
- Integration.
In supporting policy and practice improvement, researchers need skills in dealing with:
- decision making
- research implementation, and
- change.
Finally, in interacting effectively, researchers need to be well-equipped for:
- communication
- teamwork, and
- stakeholder engagement.
For each specific area of expertise, researchers need a conceptual understanding of the scope and major theories (know-that), as well as an appreciation of which concepts, methods or processes to use in their particular circumstances, along with skills in applying them (know-how).
Systems requires attention to:
- multiple interacting cause-and-effect relationships, which can be nonlinear and at different scales
- setting boundaries around what will be investigated and therefore what will be central
- the existence of systems within systems, where systems are embedded in larger systems and parts of a system are also systems
- the perspectives of those involved in investigating the system which influence how the system is understood.
Context requires attention to any circumstances that influence what is studied and how, as well as what actions are possible. Context can be divided into:
- social, eg., the historical, political, economic, cultural, geographical and other circumstances
- organizational, eg., the structure and culture of the research and stakeholder organisations involved
- individual, eg., the positionality or identity of researchers and stakeholders.
Unknowns requires an appreciation of their vastness and variety, as well as their positive and negative aspects, including that:
- different disciplines and stakeholders inherently focus on different unknowns
- six key ways of dealing with unknowns are reduction, banishment, acceptance, exploitation, surrender and denial, each of which can be adaptive or maladaptive depending on the circumstances
- while unknowns are essential for creativity and freedom, they can also be a source of major adverse unintended consequences.
Diversity requires recognising that research on complex problems is influenced by a wide range of differences among individuals, groups and societies. Key differences include those in mental models, research standards, power, values, interests, culture, personality, team roles, gender-identity, race, ability and age. Such differences can provide a richer understanding of a problem and enhance potential actions, but can also cause tensions and, if not well-managed, make collaboration harder.
Integration involves harnessing diversity to develop more comprehensive or new understandings of a problem and creative solutions by, for example, synthesising or balancing differences. It can be individual or team-based. There are multiple ways of integrating, including through theory and using methods based on dialogue, mapping and modelling, a common metric (such as dollar value) or developing a joint product. Integration requires time, iteration and reflexivity, plus recognition that everything cannot be integrated.
Decision making requires appreciating the difference between low- and high-consequence decisions, with the latter requiring rational and deliberative processes. Useful tools focus on defining the problem, eliciting objectives and performance measures, developing alternatives, estimating consequences, and evaluating trade-offs. Also critical are taking into account the impact of cognitive biases, the possibility of groupthink, and improbable but high consequence events (also known as Black Swans).
Research implementation requires assessing the value of evidence, determining where it would usefully inform decision making in government, business and civil society, and figuring out how to best make the evidence available to the relevant decision makers. This, in turn, requires understanding how policy and practice changes are formulated, the role of evidence in those processes and how to improve appreciation of the strengths and weaknesses of evidence.
Change involves an ability to navigate and influence processes that are multifaceted, unpredictable and dynamic, strengthening some processes and blocking others. The desired outcome is inherently values-based. It helps to have an understanding of:
- systems change at many scales, including individual, organisational, social, and environmental
- different options for influencing change, including providing incentives and exerting power
- different disciplinary and stakeholder perspectives on change, each of which is partial and limited.
Developing a “theory of change” can provide a good starting point for appreciating the complexities.
Communication involves formal and informal methods of engaging with others in a variety of settings, using various media and with awareness of cultural norms. Key purposes include giving and receiving information, forming and maintaining relationships, and gaining or exerting power. Useful skills include effectively framing messages, good story-telling, deep listening, inclusive facilitation and familiarity with formal dialogue processes, such as nominal group technique.
Teamwork includes many kinds of cooperation and collaboration, and requires understanding and accommodating:
- the general principles of teamwork, including building trust and a shared vision
- the diverse perspectives and skills of team members
- good processes for team formation and on-going support, including managing team dynamics and making disagreements productive
- best practices in team leadership and facilitation.
Stakeholder engagement requires recognizing the expertise of those who are affected by the problem under investigation, as well as of those who are in a position to do something about the problem, especially in government, business and civil society. Key aspects are identifying relevant stakeholders, selecting who to invite to participate, and employing appropriate forms of interaction, where what is appropriate depends on the stakeholders and the circumstances, and includes informing, consulting, co-producing and supporting.
Conclusion
It is highly unlikely that individual researchers will be able to build deep expertise in all aspects of i2S. Instead a realistic goal for individual researchers is to develop a comprehensive overview, with deep expertise in some areas. Research teams would then seek to bring together members with complementary deep expertise, so that all aspects of i2S are covered.
What do you think? Does this framework fit with your experience? Would it help you identify essential team members for tackling a complex problem? What steps would you take to solidify the framework and help build the i2S discipline?
To find out more:
- A full list of references would be overwhelming, but a good starting point is this i2Insights blog and repository, especially searching on “main topics” in advanced search eg https://i2insights.org/category/main-topics/change/.
- The first iteration of i2S (i2S 1.0) is described in Bammer, G. (2005). Integration and Implementation Sciences: Building a New Specialization. Ecology and Society, 10, 2: 6. (Online – open access): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol10/iss2/art6/.
- The second iteration of i2S (i2S 2.0) is described in Bammer, G. (2013). Disciplining Interdisciplinarity: Integration and Implementation Sciences for Researching Complex Real-World Problems. ANU Press. (Online – open access): http://dx.doi.org/10.22459/DI.01.2013.
Acknowledgements: Peter Deane made numerous useful suggestions and Alice Wetherell captured the i2S 3.0 ideas in effective images. Both are at the National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, The Australian National University, where Alice is at the Population Health Exchange (PHXchange).
Biography: Gabriele Bammer PhD is Professor of Integration and Implementation Sciences (i2S) at the National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health at The Australian National University in Canberra. i2S provides theory and methods for tackling complex societal and environmental problems, especially for developing a more comprehensive understanding in order to generate fresh insights and ideas for action, supporting improved policy and practice responses by government, business and civil society, and effective interactions between disciplinary and stakeholder experts. She is the inaugural President of the Global Alliance for Inter- and Transdisciplinarity (2023-25).